The effect of medical grade compression garments on the repeated-bout effect in non-resistance-trained men.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the central question of this study? What are the effects of compression garments on recovery from unaccustomed damaging exercise and subsequent protective adaptations? What is the main finding and its importance? Compression did not influence recovery, but was associated with blunted protective adaptations for isokinetic performance, which were completely absent at high velocities. Based on these findings, the use of compression garments for recovery would not be recommended following unaccustomed exercise, particularly if the maintenance of high-velocity performance following exercise-induced muscle damage is desirable. ABSTRACT: Whilst compression garments (CG) may enhance recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD), many recovery strategies can attenuate adaptative responses. Therefore, the effects of CG on recovery from EIMD, and the rapid protective adaptations known as the repeated bout effect (RBE) were investigated. Thirty-four non-resistance-trained males (18-45 years) randomly received class II medical-grade CG or placebo for 72 h following eccentrically-focused lower-body exercise, in a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Indices of EIMD were assessed at baseline, 0, 24, 48 and 72 h post-exercise, before exercise and testing were repeated after 14 days. Results were analysed using a three-way (time × condition × bout) linear mixed-effects model. Exercise impaired isometric and isokinetic strength, with soreness and thigh circumference elevated for 72 h (P < 0.001). Compression did not enhance recovery (P > 0.05), despite small to moderate effect sizes (ES, reported alongside 90% confidence intervals) for isokinetic strength (ES from 0.2 [-0.41, 0.82] to 0.65 [0.03, 1.28]). All variables recovered faster after the repeated bout (P < 0.005). However, RBE for peak isokinetic force was impaired in CG at 60° s-1 (group × bout interaction: χ2  = 4.24, P = 0.0395; ES = -0.56 [-1.18, 0.07]) and completely absent at 120° s-1 (χ2  = 16.2, P < 0.001, ES = -0.96 [-1.61, -0.32]) and 180° s-1 (χ2  = 10.4, P = 0.001, ES = -0.72 [-1.35, -0.09]). Compression blunted RBE at higher isokinetic velocities without improving recovery in non-resistance-trained males, potentially contraindicating their use following unaccustomed exercise in this population.

Effect of hot water immersion on acute physiological responses following resistance exercise.

Purpose: Hot water immersion (HWI) is a strategy theorised to enhance exercise recovery. However, the acute physiological responses to HWI following resistance exercise are yet to be determined. Methods: The effect of HWI on intramuscular temperature (IMT), muscle function, muscle soreness and blood markers of muscle cell disruption and inflammatory processes after resistance exercise was assessed. Sixteen resistance trained males performed resistance exercise, followed by either 10 min HWI at 40°C or 10 min passive recovery (PAS). Results: Post-intervention, the increase in IMT at all depths was greater for HWI compared to PAS, however this difference had disappeared by 1 h post at depths of 1 and 2 cm, and by 2 h post at a depth of 3 cm. There were no differences between groups for muscle function, muscle soreness or any blood markers. Conclusion: These results suggest that HWI is a viable means of heat therapy to support a greater IMT following resistance exercise. Recovery of muscle function and muscle soreness is independent of acute changes in IMT associated with HWI.

Effect of intensified training on cognitive function, psychological state & performance in trained cyclists.

Athletes often undertake intensified training loads prior to competition with the goal of functionally overreaching for temporary performance enhancement; however, little is known about the impact of this on cognitive function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of intensified training induced fatigue on cognitive function, psychological state and performance in trained cyclists. Twenty-three trained male cyclists were randomly assigned to an intensified training group or a control group for two-weeks, followed by a two-week taper period. At baseline, one-week, two-weeks and post-taper, participants undertook a series of cognitive, performance, mood and recovery-stress assessments. The training intervention significantly increased training volume, load and strain by 108%, 116% and 151% respectively. Peak and mean power output on a maximal test and time trial significantly decreased by 4.8% and 9.4% following the two-week training intervention compared to baseline, in addition to a 169% change in total mood disturbance and significant disruption to recovery-stress balance. No change in any cognitive measure was observed across the study period. Following a two-week taper, performance, mood and well-being measures returned to baseline. Two weeks of intensified training resulted in overreaching as identified by performance and psychological measures. Cognitive function was not sensitive to intensified training promoting caution with its use as a measure for the early identification of overreaching.HighlightsTwo-weeks of intensified training significantly increased training volume, load and strain eliciting a state of overreaching in trained male cyclists.Intensified training caused deteriorations in physical performance but did not influence cognitive measures.Mood and recovery-stress balance were negatively affected by intensified training but recovered back to baseline following a two-week taper at a reduced training volume.A two-week taper period following two-weeks of intensified training did not result in improved physiological measures, physical performance parameters or mood above initial baseline values highlighting the need for careful consideration over the purpose, desired outcomes and necessity of intensified training on an individualised basis.

Custom-Fitted Compression Garments Enhance Recovery From Muscle Damage in Rugby Players.

ABSTRACT: Brown, F, Jeffries, O, Gissane, C, Howatson, G, van Someren, K, Pedlar, C, Myers, T, and Hill, JA. Custom-fitted compression garments enhance recovery from muscle damage in rugby players. J Strength Cond Res 36(1): 212-219, 2022-to evaluate the effects of custom-fitted compression garments (CG) on recovery from muscle damage in rugby players. Forty-five players were tested for lower-body strength, power, and indices of muscle damage before completing a damaging protocol (20 × 20-m sprints with 5-m deceleration, 100 drop jumps). Players were randomly assigned to wear either custom-fitted (CF, n = 13), or standard-sized CG (SSG, n = 16), or to receive sham ultrasound therapy (CON, n = 16) immediately after exercise. Players were retested immediately, then after 24 and 48 hours. Strength recovery was significantly different between groups (F = 2.7, p = 0.02), with only CF recovering to baseline values by 48 hours (p = 0.973). Time × condition effects were also apparent for creatine kinase activity (χ2 = 30.4, p < 0.001) and midthigh girth (F = 3.7, p = 0.005), with faster recovery apparent in CF compared with both CON and SSG (p < 0.05). Custom-fitted CG improved strength recovery and indices of muscle damage in rugby players, compared with controls and standard-sized garments. Athletes and coaches would be advised to use appropriately fitted CG to enhance strength recovery after damaging exercise.

The effect of custom-fitted compression garments worn overnight for recovery from judo training in elite athletes.

This study investigated the effects of custom-fitted compression garments (CG) worn during recovery over a multi-day training camp in elite judo players (judoka). A single blind, placebo-controlled study was carried out in 11 elite judoka, using a two-way crossover design. Two three-day training camps were completed in CG and placebo conditions in a random order. Changes in performance and physiological markers were compared between conditions. Judoka were assessed before training for (maximal) isometric knee extension and grip strength, countermovement jump performance and bench-press velocity, alongside soreness, limb circumferences, plasma creatine kinase activity (CK) and perceived bruising. Measurements were repeated after 12, 36 and 43 h of training, whereupon judoka rated the effectiveness of each intervention. Knee extension and bench-press performance demonstrated significant familiarization (p < 0.001), and were excluded from subsequent analysis. Jump performance was unaffected by training (p > 0.05). Grip strength declined throughout training (p < 0.001), with peak decrements of -9.7% indicating mild muscle damage. Increases in bruising, CK and soreness demonstrated highly variable, if significant (p < 0.001) responses. Although CG were perceived as significantly more effective than placebo for recovery (p = 0.046), no effects were observed for any other outcome (p > 0.05). Compression conferred no statistically significant impact upon recovery markers in elite judoka throughout training. Muscle damage responses were inconsistent in this population. Individual athletes would be advised to monitor habitually-used performance measures while using CG to ascertain whether perceptual benefits translate into enhanced recovery.HighlightsCompression garments were perceived as more effective for recovery than placebo by elite judoka.However, no measures of performance or muscle damage were enhanced by CG.Randori was associated with inconsistent muscle damage responses in elite judoka, while lower-body performance was not impaired.Individual athletes would be advised to monitor habitually-used performance measures while using CG to ascertain whether perceptual benefits translate into enhanced recovery.

Detrimental effects on executive function and mood following consecutive days of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise in trained male sports players.

Intensified periods of competition are common in many team sports, potentially leading to increased fatigue and reduced performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise on cognitive function, mood and perceptions of energy and fatigue. Twenty-four trained rugby players completed multiple bouts of repeated sprints across two consecutive days. Prior to and following each set of maximal effort sprints or equivalent control duration, a battery of cognitive tasks assessing simple and choice reaction time, visuo-spatial working memory and inhibition were completed as well as visual analogue scales that assessed mood, energy, and fatigue. Accuracy of incongruent Stroop responses was significantly lower across day 2 compared to day 1 and the control condition. Four-choice reaction time was slower across day 2 whilst feelings of alertness, contentedness, and physical and mental energy were reduced while ratings of physical and mental fatigue increased. These findings suggest that intensified periods of high-intensity sprint interval exercise have detrimental effects on executive function, mood and perceptions of physical and mental energy, and fatigue. These deleterious effects have the potential to impact performance and may increase the propensity for injury/accidents in certain sporting and non-sporting contexts.

Total body skeletal muscle mass estimated by magnetic resonance imaging and creatine (methyl-d3 ) dilution in athletes.

Creatine dilution (D3 -cr) is a technique for estimating total skeletal muscle mass (SMM) with practical utility, but has not been applied in athletic populations where body composition may differ to that in the normal population. This study aimed to assess the agreement between SMM derived from both D3 -cr and that obtained from whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 15 male and 5 female national level kayakers (stature: 182.0 ± 13.1 and 170.0 ± 9.0 cm; body mass: 80.6 ± 9.9 and 66.4 ± 6.0 kg; V̇O2 peak: 56.5 ± 7.0 and 49.6 ± 4.4 mL kg-1  min-1 , mean ± SD). SMM was determined following 60 mg of dosed D3 -cr and analysis of expelled urine collected on four subsequent days for creatine, creatinine, D3 -cr, and D3 -creatinine using liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy. SMM was then estimated by assuming a creatine pool size of 4.3 g/kg. During the same time period, a whole-body MRI was undertaken to derive SMM from the analysis of multiple slices taken across the body. A strong positive correlation (F = 74.32; R = 0.90; P < .0001) between the two methods was observed, but the D3 -cr SMM was found to be significantly higher (43.3 ± 6.8 kg) when compared with MRI (36.3 ± 5.8 kg, P < .0001). However, the difference between the methods was removed when a higher intramuscular creatine pool (5.1 g/kg) was assumed. These data show that D3 -cr has potential utility in athletes, as referenced against MRI, but show that assumptions regarding creatine pool size need to be carefully considered.

Cold water immersion improves recovery of sprint speed following a simulated tournament.

It is a common requirement in tournament scenarios for athletes to compete multiple times in a relatively short time period, with insufficient recovery time not allowing full restoration of physical performance. This study aimed to develop a greater understanding of the physiological stress experienced by athletes in a tournament scenario, and how a commonly used recovery strategy, cold water immersion (CWI), might influence these markers. Twenty-one trained male games players (age 19 ± 2; body mass 78.0 ± 8.8 kg) were randomised into a CWI group (n = 11) or a control group (n = 10). To simulate a tournament, participants completed the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) on three occasions in five days. Recovery was assessed at specific time points using markers of sprint performance, muscle function, muscle soreness and biochemical markers of damage (creatine kinase, CK), inflammation (IL-6 and C-Reactive Protein) and oxidative stress (lipid hydroperoxides and activity of 6 lipid-soluble antioxidants). The simulated tournament was associated with perturbations in some, but not all, markers of physiological stress and recovery. Cold water immersion was associated with improved recovery of sprint speed 24 h after the final LIST (ES = 0.83 ± 0.59; p = .034) and attenuated the efflux of CK pre- and post-LIST 3 (p < .01). The tournament scenario resulted in an escalation of physiological stress that, in the main, cold water immersion was ineffective at managing. These data suggest that CWI is not harmful, and provides limited benefits in attenuating the deleterious effects experienced during tournament scenarios.

Assessing the usefulness of acute physiological responses following resistance exercise: sensitivity, magnitude of change, and time course of measures.

A variety of strategies exist to modulate the acute physiological responses following resistance exercise aimed at enhancing recovery and/or adaptation processes. To assess the true impact of these strategies, it is important to know the ability of different measures to detect meaningful change. We investigated the sensitivity of measures used to quantify acute physiological responses to resistance exercise and constructed a physiological profile to characterise the magnitude of change and the time course of these responses. Eight males accustomed to regular resistance exercise performed experimental sessions during a "control week", void of an exercise stimulus. The following week, termed the "exercise week", participants repeated this sequence of experimental sessions, and they also performed a bout of lower-limb resistance exercise following the baseline assessments. Assessments were conducted at baseline and at 2, 6, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after the intervention. On the basis of the signal-to-noise ratio, the most sensitive measures were maximal voluntary isometric contraction, 20-m sprint, countermovement jump peak force, rate of force development (100-200 ms), muscle soreness, Daily Analysis Of Life Demands For Athletes part B, limb girth, matrix metalloproteinase-9, interleukin-6, creatine kinase, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with ratios >1.5. Clear changes in these measures following resistance exercise were determined via magnitude-based inferences. These findings highlight measures that can detect real changes in acute physiological responses following resistance exercise in trained individuals. Researchers investigating strategies to manipulate acute physiological responses for recovery and/or adaptation can use these measures, as well as the recommended sampling points, to be confident that their interventions are making a worthwhile impact.

Human Skeletal Muscle Possesses an Epigenetic Memory of Hypertrophy.

It is unknown if adult human skeletal muscle has an epigenetic memory of earlier encounters with growth. We report, for the first time in humans, genome-wide DNA methylation (850,000 CpGs) and gene expression analysis after muscle hypertrophy (loading), return of muscle mass to baseline (unloading), followed by later hypertrophy (reloading). We discovered increased frequency of hypomethylation across the genome after reloading (18,816 CpGs) versus earlier loading (9,153 CpG sites). We also identified AXIN1, GRIK2, CAMK4, TRAF1 as hypomethylated genes with enhanced expression after loading that maintained their hypomethylated status even during unloading where muscle mass returned to control levels, indicating a memory of these genes methylation signatures following earlier hypertrophy. Further, UBR5, RPL35a, HEG1, PLA2G16, SETD3 displayed hypomethylation and enhanced gene expression following loading, and demonstrated the largest increases in hypomethylation, gene expression and muscle mass after later reloading, indicating an epigenetic memory in these genes. Finally, genes; GRIK2, TRAF1, BICC1, STAG1 were epigenetically sensitive to acute exercise demonstrating hypomethylation after a single bout of resistance exercise that was maintained 22 weeks later with the largest increase in gene expression and muscle mass after reloading. Overall, we identify an important epigenetic role for a number of largely unstudied genes in muscle hypertrophy/memory.

The Role of Intra-Session Exercise Sequence in the Interference Effect: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: There is a necessity for numerous sports to develop strength and aerobic capacity simultaneously, placing a significant demand upon the practice of effective concurrent training methods. Concurrent training requires the athlete to perform both resistance and endurance exercise within a training plan. This training paradigm has been associated with an 'interference effect', with attenuated strength adaptation in comparison to that following isolated resistance training. The effectiveness of the training programme rests on the intricacies of manipulating acute training variables, such as exercise sequence. The research, in the most part, does not provide a clarity of message as to whether intra-session exercise sequence has the potential to exacerbate or mitigate the interference effect associated with concurrent training methods. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess whether intra-session concurrent exercise sequence modifies strength-based outcomes associated with the interference effect. METHODS: Ten studies were identified from a systematic review of the literature for the outcomes of lower-body dynamic and static strength, lower-body hypertrophy, maximal aerobic capacity and body fat percentage. Each study examined the effect of intra-session exercise sequence on the specified outcomes, across a prolonged (≥5 weeks) concurrent training programme in healthy adults. RESULTS: Analysis of pooled data indicated that resistance-endurance exercise sequence had a positive effect for lower-body dynamic strength, in comparison to the alternate sequence (weighted mean difference, 6.91% change; 95% confidence interval 1.96, 11.87 change; p = 0.006), with no effect of exercise sequence for lower-body muscle hypertrophy (weighted mean difference, 1.15% change; 95% confidence interval -1.56, 3.87 change; p = 0.40), lower-body static strength (weighted mean difference, -0.04% change; 95% confidence interval -3.19, 3.11 change; p = 0.98), or the remaining outcomes of maximal aerobic capacity and body fat percentage (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the practice of concurrent training with a resistance followed by an endurance exercise order is beneficial for the outcome of lower-body dynamic strength, while alternating the order of stimuli offers no benefit for training outcomes associated with the interference effect.

Compression Garments and Recovery from Exercise: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Adequate recovery from exercise is essential to maintain performance throughout training and competition. While compression garments (CG) have been demonstrated to accelerate recovery, the literature is clouded by conflicting results and uncertainty over the optimal conditions of use. OBJECTIVES: A meta-analysis was conducted to assess the effects of CG on the recovery of strength, power and endurance performance following an initial bout of resistance, running, or non-load-bearing endurance (metabolic) exercise. METHODS: Change-score data were extracted from 23 peer-reviewed studies on healthy participants. Recovery was quantified by converting into standardized mean effect sizes (ES) [±95% confidence interval (CI)]. The effects of time (0-2, 2-8, 24, >24 h), pressure (<15 vs. ≥15 mmHg) and training status (trained vs. untrained) were also assessed. RESULTS: CG demonstrated small, very likely benefits [p < 0.001, ES = 0.38 (95% CI 0.25, 0.51)], which were not influenced by pressure (p = 0.06) or training status (p = 0.64). Strength recovery was subject to greater benefits than other outcomes [p < 0.001, ES = 0.62 (95% CI 0.39, 0.84)], displaying large, very likely benefits at 2-8 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.14 (95% CI 0.72, 1.56)] and >24 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.03 (95% CI 0.48, 1.57)]. Recovery from using CG was greatest following resistance exercise [p < 0.001, ES = 0.49 (95% CI 0.37, 0.61)], demonstrating the largest, very likely benefits at >24 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.33 (95% CI 0.80, 1.85)]. Recovery from metabolic exercise (p = 0.01) was significant, although large, very likely benefits emerged only for cycling performance at 24 h post-exercise [p = 0.01, ES = 1.05 (95% CI 0.25, 1.85)]. CONCLUSION: The largest benefits resulting from CG were for strength recovery from 2 to 8 h and >24 h. Considering exercise modality, compression most effectively enhanced recovery from resistance exercise, particularly at time points >24 h. The use of CG would also be recommended to enhance next-day cycling performance. The benefits of CG in relation to applied pressures and participant training status are unclear and limited by the paucity of reported data.

The efficacy of protein supplementation during recovery from muscle-damaging concurrent exercise.

This study investigated the effect of protein supplementation on recovery following muscle-damaging exercise, which was induced with a concurrent exercise design. Twenty-four well-trained male cyclists were randomised to 3 independent groups receiving 20 g protein hydrolysate, iso-caloric carbohydrate, or low-calorific placebo supplementation, per serve. Supplement serves were provided twice daily, from the onset of the muscle-damaging exercise, for a total of 4 days and in addition to a controlled diet (6 g·kg-1·day-1 carbohydrate, 1.2 g·kg-1·day-1 protein, remainder from fat). Following the concurrent exercise session at time-point 0 h, comprising a simulated high-intensity road cycling trial and 100 drop-jumps, recovery of outcome measures was assessed at 24, 48, and 72 h. The concurrent exercise protocol was deemed to have caused exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD), owing to time effects (p < 0.001), confirming decrements in maximal voluntary contraction (peaking at 15% ± 10%) and countermovement jump performance (peaking at 8% ± 7%), along with increased muscle soreness, creatine kinase, and C-reactive protein concentrations. No group or interaction effects (p > 0.05) were observed for any of the outcome measures. The present results indicate that protein supplementation does not attenuate any of the indirect indices of EIMD imposed by concurrent exercise, when employing great rigour around the provision of a quality habitual diet and the provision of appropriate supplemental controls.

Laryngoscopy during swimming: A novel diagnostic technique to characterize swimming-induced laryngeal obstruction.

Exercise-induced laryngeal obstruction (EILO) is a key differential diagnosis for respiratory symptoms in athletes and is particularly prevalent in aquatic athletes. A definitive diagnosis of EILO is dependent on laryngoscopy, performed continuously, while an athlete engages in the sport that precipitates their symptoms. This report provides the first description of the feasibility of performing continuous laryngoscopy during exercise in a swimming environment. The report describes the methodology and safety of the use of continuous laryngoscopy while swimming. Laryngoscope, 127:2298-2301, 2017.

The Effects of Compression-Garment Pressure on Recovery After Strenuous Exercise.

Compression garments are frequently used to facilitate recovery from strenuous exercise. PURPOSE: To identify the effects of 2 different grades of compression garment on recovery indices after strenuous exercise. METHODS: Forty-five recreationally active participants (n = 26 male and n = 19 female) completed an eccentric-exercise protocol consisting of 100 drop jumps, after which they were matched for body mass and randomly but equally assigned to a high-compression pressure (HI) group, a low-compression pressure (LOW) group, or a sham ultrasound group (SHAM). Participants in the HI and LOW groups wore the garments for 72 h postexercise; participants in the SHAM group received a single treatment of 10-min sham ultrasound. Measures of perceived muscle soreness, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), countermovement-jump height (CMJ), creatine kinase (CK), C-reactive protein (CRP), and myoglobin (Mb) were assessed before the exercise protocol and again at 1, 24, 48, and 72 h postexercise. Data were analyzed using a repeated-measures ANOVA. RESULTS: Recovery of MVC and CMJ was significantly improved with the HI compression garment (P < .05). A significant time-by-treatment interaction was also observed for jump height at 24 h postexercise (P < .05). No significant differences were observed for parameters of soreness and plasma CK, CRP, and Mb. CONCLUSIONS: The pressures exerted by a compression garment affect recovery after exercise-induced muscle damage, with higher pressure improving recovery of muscle function.

The Physiological Profile of a Multiple Tour de France Winning Cyclist.

INTRODUCTION: This case study reports a range of physiological characteristics in a two-time Tour de France champion. METHODS: After body composition assessment (dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry), two submaximal cycling step tests were performed in ambient (20°C, 40%) and hot and humid (30°C, 60% [HH]) conditions from which measures of gross efficiency (GE), lactate-power landmarks, and heart rate responses were calculated. In addition, thermoregulatory and sweat responses were collected throughout. V˙O2peak and peak power output (PPO) were also identified after a separate ramp test to exhaustion. RESULTS: V˙O2peak and PPO were 5.91 L·min (84 mL·kg·min) and 525 W, respectively, whereas mean GE values were 23.0% and 23.6% for ambient and HH conditions, respectively. In addition to superior GE, power output at 4 mmol·L lactate was higher in HH versus ambient conditions (429.6 vs 419.0 W) supporting anecdotal reports from the participant of good performance in the heat. Peak core and skin temperature, sweat rate, and electrolyte content were higher in HH conditions. Body fat percentage was 9.5%, whereas total fat mass, lean mass, and bone mineral content were 6.7, 61.5, and 2.8 kg, respectively. CONCLUSION: The aerobic physiology and PPO values indentified are among the highest reported for professional road cyclists. Notably, the participant displayed both a high V˙O2peak and GE, which is uncommon among elite cyclists and may be a contributing factor to their success in elite cycling. In addition, performance in HH conditions was strong, suggesting effective thermoregulatory physiology. In summary, this is the first study to report physiological characteristics of a multiple Tour de France champion in close to peak condition and suggests what may be the prerequisite physiological and thermoregulatory capacities for success at this level.

The exercise intensity at maximal oxygen uptake (i⩒O2max): Methodological issues and repeatability.

The minimum exercise intensity that elicits ⩒O2max (i⩒O2max) is an important variable associated with endurance exercise performance. i⩒O2max is usually determined during a maximal incremental exercise test; however, the magnitude and duration of the increments used influence the i⩒O2max value produced by a given test. The aims of this study were twofold. The first was to investigate whether the i⩒O2max value produced by a single cycle ergometer test (i⩒O2max(S)) was repeatable. The second was to determine if i⩒O2max(S) represents the minimum intensity at which ⩒O2max is elicited when compared to a refined i⩒O2max value (i⩒O2max(R)) derived from repeated tests. Seventeen male cyclists (age 33.9 ± 7.7 years, body mass 80.9 ± 10.2 kg, height 1.82 ± 0.05 m; VO2max 4.27 ± 0.62 L min(-1)) performed four maximal incremental tests for the determination of i⩒O2max(S) and i⩒O2max(R) (3 min stages; 20 W increments). Trials 1 and 2 were identical and used for assessing the repeatability of i⩒O2max(S), trials 3 and 4 began at different intensities and were used to determine i⩒O2max(R). i⩒O2max(S) showed good test-retest repeatability for i⩒O2max (CV = 4.1%; ICC = 0.93), VO2max (CV = 6.3%; ICC = 0.88) and test duration (CV = 6.7%; ICC = 0.89). There was no significant difference between i⩒O2max(S) and i⩒O2max(R) (303 ± 40 W vs. 301 ± 42 W) (P < .05). The present results suggest that i⩒O2max determined directly during a maximal incremental test is repeatable and provides a very good estimate of the minimum exercise intensity that elicits ⩒O2max.

Effects of seated and standing cold water immersion on recovery from repeated sprinting.

This study investigated the effects of two different hydrostatic pressures (seated or standing) during cold water immersion at attenuating the deleterious effects of strenuous exercise on indices of damage and recovery. Twenty four male well-trained games players (age 23 ± 3 years; body mass 81.4 ± 8.7 kg: [Formula: see text]O2max 57.5 ± 4.9 ml∙kg(-1)∙min(-1)) completed the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) and were randomly assigned to either a control, seated cold water immersion or a standing cold water immersion (14 min at 14°C). Maximal isometric voluntary contraction, counter-movement jump, creatine kinase, C-reactive protein, interleukin-6 and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were measured before and up to 72 h following the LIST. All dependent variables showed main effects for time (P < 0.05) following the LIST, indicating physiological stress and muscle damage following the exercise. There were no significant group differences between control and either of the cold water immersion interventions. Seated cold water immersion was associated with lower DOMS than standing cold water immersion (effect size = 1.86; P = 0.001). These data suggest that increasing hydrostatic pressure by standing in cold water does not provide an additional recovery benefit over seated cold water immersion, and that both seated and standing immersions have no benefit in promoting recovery following intermittent sprint exercise.

Oral health and elite sport performance.

While the research base is limited, studies have consistently reported poor oral health in elite athletes since the first report from the 1968 Olympic Games. The finding is consistent both across selected samples attending dental clinics at major competitions and more representative sampling of teams and has led to calls from the International Olympic Committee for more accurate data on oral health. Poor oral health is an important issue directly as it can cause pain, negative effects on appearance and psychosocial effects on confidence and quality of life and may have long-term consequences for treatment burden. Self-reported evidence also suggests an impact on training and performance of athletes. There are many potential challenges to the oral health of athletes including nutritional, oral dehydration, exercise-induced immune suppression, lack of awareness, negative health behaviours and lack of prioritisation. However, in theory, oral diseases are preventable by simple interventions with good evidence of efficacy. The consensus statement aims to raise awareness of the issues of oral health in elite sport and recommends strategies for prevention and health promotion in addition to future research strategies.